Ed. note: Starting this week, you'll be able to read Kevin Myatt's Weather Journal on Tuesdays and Fridays in The Roanoke Times. But here online, you can read Myatt's weather news a day earlier.
Oct. 30, 2003
TELLING PHOTOS
The pattern change we discussed here earlier this week has arrived. Wyoming is getting pounded by a snowstorm, as showing in this photo at Casper on Thursday, a day after the area basked in 70-degree temperatures. With the jet stream dipping south in the West to let Arctic air in from Canada, it will be rising northward in the East, giving us a period of dry warmth -- what many people call "Indian summer." (Associated Press photo)
I have heard of no reports locally of aurora displays following this week's series of solar storms (another flare shot out of the sun late Wednesday), but the aurora has been seen in many other parts of the world. This photo was shot at Hauser Lake, Idaho, on Wednesday night. (Associated Press photo)
SANTA ANA WINDS
All the leaves are burnt, and the sky is black.
It's been anything but "California Dreamin' " this week, as nightmarish wildfires have charred forests and scarred communities around San Diego and Los Angeles. At least 20 people are dead and thousands of homes have been destroyed.
The weather phenomenon responsible for spreading the fires last weekend and early this week is known as the Santa Ana winds. They recur on an intermittent basis when a strong high pressure system sets up to the north of the region. Ciruclating clockwise, the high pressure system drives winds from east to west out of the desert into Southern California, rather than the typical westerly breezes off the Pacific Ocean that usually make California such a pleasant place to visit.
Persistent winds from one of the hottest, driest places on the planet would be bad enough for fire danger, but Southern California's topography turns the Santa Ana winds into a pyrotechnic tempest.
The winds rise and fall over several waves of mountains. If there were any moisture at all in the desert winds, it would be squeezed out when it's lifted over the first mountain. When air descends down a mountain's slope, it dries out, and also heats up as it is compressed. So already hot, dry winds become hotter and drier.
Then, the winds become faster. The winds are channeled through tight valleys in the mountains, and this accelerates them to speeds commonly as high as 60 or even 70 mph.
We don't have anything like the Santa Ana winds here in Western Virginia. We don't have a desert anywhere near us, for one thing, and what we call a severe drought is positively soggy compared to average rainfall in most Western areas. What we label "forest fires" in the Eastern United States are more like brush fires rather than the tree top-to-treetop infernos that can engulf western woodlands.
We do have rows of mountains west of us, and from time to time we do get downslope effects during periods of west wind. We can experience a warmup on persistent downsloping winds, and often we in the Roanoke Valley are left dry when showers of rain or snow cross the mountains. The entire Shenandoah Valley is something of a "rain shadow" with less precipitation annually than the higher elevation areas surrounding it.
The closest comparison to Santa Ana winds we've had would be the windy, warm dry fall days of 1999 and 2001, when many wildfires developed and spread rapidly in the Applachian forests. It took months of drought beforehand to make those fires what they were, providing much-needed ground fuel for the fires to spread.
The Santa Ana winds have ended in California now as the weather pattern has changed to return west winds off the ocean. The problem is that the fires are so large that they're practically creating their own local weather, and the wind change is only serving to fan them in dangerous new directions. It will take many days or weeks for firefighters to contain the blazes.
For us, the same weather pattern shift that has ended the Santa Ana winds will lead to many days of warm, dry weather, as a large high pressure system builds over us while storminess pervades the West. It will be a beautiful stretch of weather for outdoor activities, with cool mornings, toasty days, little or no rain and lots of sun over the next 1-2 weeks, at least. Thankfully, we'll have neither last year's drought nor California's Santa Ana winds to taint our joy with worry.
October 29, 2003
SOLAR STORM ON THE WAY
It's more astronomy than meteorology, but Planet Earth would be under a Solar Storm Warning today, if there were such a thing.
The sun has ejected a massive flare of charged particles that is expected to arrive within hours. Scientists believe it could be the third largest in recorded history. It is one of several solar ejections in recent days, but by far the strongest.
Much is uncertain about the effects until it actually arrives. It could interfere with satellite communications, ground-based communications and even power grids. In 1989, a solar storm knocked out power in much of Canada. In 1859, what is believed to be the largest such event on record shorted out telegraph lines across the United States, sparking fires.
One thing that is likely is dramatic auroras for the next two nights. If you live out in the country away from city lights, take advantage of tonight's expected fair weather to gander north and see if you can see shimmering, colorful lights in the sky. Auroras are typically visible only in far nothern latitudes (and far southern latitudes, in the other hemisphere), but a solar storm like this could make them visible much farther south.
For more information on this solar storm and other sun and space events affecting earth, check out spaceweather.com
Oct. 27, 2003
PATTERN FLIP-FLOP
The overall weather pattern that we see setting up later in the week is almost completely opposite from the one that has been dominant over the past year -- the one that brought us a snowy winter, rainy spring and a mild showery summer.
For most of the past year, we have seen the jet stream rise north over a high pressure ridge in the western United States and then dive southeast under a low pressure trough in our part of the country. The general result has been warm, dry weather in the West and cool, wet weather in the East.
But over the course of the next week, the jet stream -- the fast moving current of air that propels storm systems -- will instead be entering the U.S. by diving south under a western trough, then rising north of us over a developing high pressure ridge. This is going to bring cold weather to the western half of the country, frequent storm systems arriving from the Pacific, and the season's first major snowstorm to the Rockies by Halloween.
For us, it will mean warmer than normal and relatively dry weather for the trick-or-treaters. Ditto for the first week in November as the high pressure deflects most storminess away from us toward Canada. We're not talking stifling heat, but temperatures around 70 degrees are likely by late in the week, though the mornings will have enough chill to suggest fall. Average highs are in the low 60s this time of year.
A few meteorologists out there have been pointing to warm sea surface temperature signals in the northern Pacific and Atlantic to suggest that the Western trough/Eastern ridge pattern could become the dominant weather pattern of the winter months. If so, it won't be a hard winter at all here in Virginia, as is widely speculated, but milder and drier than normal.
It could be that this mild pattern for the eastern U.S. plays itself out in late fall and by winter we'll be sipping through a long straw that leads right to the Arctic Circle. But right now, I'm just not ready to jump whole hog on this Farmer's Almanac idea of a mini-ice age this winter. It's got to show me something in the pregame first.
Oct. 24 2003
WHERE'S THE SNOW ... AND THE RAIN?
This week's expected snow showers were a fizzle. The moisture layer wasn't deep enough and the cold air wasn't either.
Snowshoe, West Va., got its first ground coating of white, and a few other high elevation places had some snow or sleet. If you were on a mountaintop along the Virginia-West Virginia line late Wednesday night or Thursday morning, you might have seen a few flakes or pellets. But the full-fledged, snow-gun upslope event didn't get going.
What is much less likely to fizzle is the projected waterlogged start to the upcoming week.
Here in the Roanoke Valley, we haven't had a soaking downpour in a while. The last rain of more than an inch was from Hurricane Isabel on Sept. 18, and that was an inch and a half of slow, steady all-day rain. The last time we had more than that was 1.70 on July 2, part of a stretch of 19 days in which measurable rainfall fell on 16.
In October, we haven't even had an inch of rain yet through the first 24 days. The average October rainfall is 2.35 inches, the driest month of the year, but as of this morning, Roanoke Regional Airport has had only .86. It seems 2003 has forgotten all about its rainy habits.
The result of the dry October and a typical September is that we have fallen off the pace that would have put us near the annual rainfall record of 56.20 inches. At 46.62 inches to date, we'd need almost 10 in the next two months and a week to challenge the record. Not impossible by any means, but it would take a few real super-soaker systems.
(By the way, this time last year we had 23.83 inches of rain ... so we're almost double that!)
What's developing for early in the week is that an upper level low pressure trough in the Midwest, a slow-moving cold front and a series of surface low pressure areas riding along that front are collaborating to create the potential for widespread and locally heavy rain essentially from New Orleans to Newfoundland.
The upper level trough will scoop up the Gulf of Mexico moisture and sling it northward. The front will serve as a "focusing mechanism," a place where contrasting air masses meet to condense the moisture. The surface low pressure areas will add a little extra energy and spin to the whole thing, and will serve to draw in more moisture from the Gulf and Atlantic as they rotate south and southeast breezes into our area.
This pattern will bring colder air into the nation's heartland as the jet stream buckles south under the trough, and should it lock for a while, we might get several repeat sessions of thes Gulf lows and slow-moving cold fronts. That could get us back on a record annual rainfall pace well before the turkey hits the table.
Before I leave the subject, there is another snow shower threat by mid-week over the upslope areas of the mountains as a secondary, stronger cold front passes Tuesday and low pressure develops on the coast. This scenario would pull gusty northwest winds over the mountains, and with thicker moisture and cold air, it could again threaten the first flakes to areas that didn't get them this past week.
Winter will try, try again until it finally succeeds.
October 21, 2003
THE 'S-WORD' IS BACK
It's that time again, boys and girls.
Through the winter months, examining the potential of snow is likely to become an obsession in this weather column. Snow makes its first appearance of the season in our forecasts this week, but only a tiny taste of it.
If you are in the New River Valley, or in the higher elevations to the west along the Virginia-West Virginia line, you may see a few snowflakes blowing around on Wednesday night and Thursday.
What's happening is that an upper level trough is digging in the East while an upper level high builds in the West. It's the same song, 123rd verse since about this time last year. The jet stream comes up and over the big ridge in the West, allowing warmth to develop there, then careens southeast ward out of Canada toward Dixie. This allows cold air to seep in from our nothern neighbor.
Wednesday night's northwest winds will bring the first installment of what is likely to be a long-running series of upslope snow shower events in West Virginia and far western Virginia. This is where the winds running uphill on the mountains condense what moisture is available, wringing it out. This is why it seems like it's snowing in Beckley, West Va., every waking moment from Thanksgiving to Easter.
Sometimes, these upslope events can kick out several inches. There's not much moisture this time, so expect no more than a skiff on some far removed mountaintop. Probably only a few flurries in the New River Valley, if that.
Here in the Roanoke Valley, the downslope winds on the east side of the Alleghenies tend to dry things out pretty quick. But don't entirely rule out the possibility of seeing a spit or two of white fly by on cold gusty winds Thursday morning. High temperatures will likely warm into the 50s after that, though, and it should be one of those gorgeous fall days with fast-moving fluffly clouds casting shadows on the mountains, a fresh breeze stirring the leaves, and lots of sun.
DISMAL AUTUMN COLOR
Some of you have noted the real lack of bright fall colors in much of Western Virginia this year. It seems the colors are muted, and leaves turn brown and fall quickly, while other trees are still green. It's certainly not the brilliant show I've come to expect from my first three autumns in the Roanoke Valley.
Meteorologist Joe Bastardi of Accuweather.com, who observed the drab Virginia autumn on a trip down I-81 from his Pennsylvania home to South Carolina, speculated on three possible causes: (1) abundant summer rain and (2) salt brought in from the ocean by Hurricane Isabel and (3) an abnormally early and severe frost/freeze in many areas, back on Oct. 3.
Possibility 2 is particularly intriguing to me, since I've heard accounts of salt residue left on automobiles following our brush with Isabel.
A Baltimore Sun article published on the front page of Monday's Roanoke Times notes that research is showing that colors are brightest when trees are in distress, such as that caused by drought. In 2001, we went nearly the whole month of October without a drop of rain and had a fall color display akin to Joseph's multi-color robe. Maybe our trees just got too much of a good thing this year and are just too soaked to put on the dog for us.
So it's an off-year for fall color. I'll take our off-year over most places' finest foliage anytime.
October 17, 2003
CANADIAN SNOW COVER: AN EARLY PEEK AT OUR WINTER?
Now that we're sliding into the colder months of the year, one thing that weather buffs begin to look at in gauging what the upcoming winter might hold is the snow cover over Canada.
It's sort of like early election returns off exit polling. It's one way to get an early snapshot of what might be about to happen in the United States. But you have to be careful not to call the election too early, and there's still some time for trends to change as other polling stations close.
Last year there was a buzz about this time of year when Canada's fall snow cover was its most widespread and deepest in 26 years. What followed was a persistently cold winter over the eastern half of the United States with frequent winter storms, including one of historic proportions in mid-February.
Think back to last year in Roanoke ... it was a snow a week almost all the way through January and February, flanked by 6-inch type snowstorms in the first week of December and last week of March. We missed out on the monster snowstorm, getting a 3- to 5-inch hard-shell coating of sleet and ice instead, but it was a substantial winter for us, our worst in seven years.
Snow cover helps hold in cold temperatures. It chills the air above it and reflects sunlight away that would otherwise be absorbed by the ground and then radiated into the air as warmth. Snow cover alone can scrape 10 or 15 degrees off temperatures on a clear, calm night, and it can chip as much off afternoon highs on a sunny winter day. Snow cover can and often has made the temperature difference needed between a 36-degree chilly rain and a 30-degree ice storm. It's often the wintertime X-factor that defies computer forecast modeling in touch-and-go weather situations.
The hypothesis is that a thick Canadian snowpack will propogate early season cold-air masses and hold them in longer later in the season as they dive south into the United States. A thin or vacant Canadian snowpack means any Arctic air that makes it south will be less severe and retreat much more quickly.
It would be hard to find a meteorologist who does not agree with this as a general principle, but when you stretch it to say that fall snow cover in Canada foretells winter in the States, that's when things get slushy.
Snow cover has only been tracked quantifiably on a consistent basis since the early 1970s, so enough verifiable data has not yet been collected to establish clear correlations or trends. But still, you will find widely respected weather scientists who insist that Canadian snow cover is one of the most reliable indicators of the winter ahead.
So what does the current Canadian snow cover show?
It's not impressive. Click here and see for yourself. The Great White North is more beige than white on this map.
There's still plenty of time for things to change. Weather forecast trends show that storminess is going to be more likely in the next couple of weeks over Canada, and this will likely start painting more white on the map.
If this early exit polling is right, though, the Farmer's Almanac and about half the meteorologists out there might be in trouble with calls for a big winter. But the polling places haven't closed everywhere yet, and there's much new data to be considered.
Maybe the U.S. government's Climate Prediction Center has the right idea. Its recently released winter forecast is putting the Eastern United States in the "too close to call" category, or as CPC says, "equal chances of above, below and normal" temperatures and precipitation.
After blowing two straight winter forecasts, that may be the best move for CPC.
October 14, 2003
TODAY'S ACTIVE WEATHER: WORSE THAN ISABEL?
Winter vs. summer cranks up for Round 2 today as a strong low pressure system will pass to our west and north. The threat this afternoon into the evening is severe thunderstorms; the threat overnight into early Wednesday morning is a prolonged period of potentially damaging west winds.
The path of this low pressure system across the Ohio Valley puts us squarely in what is known as the "warm sector," and that can be some rocking, rolling turbulent storminess. The warm sector is to the south and east of a low's path, where Gulf moisture and warmth is pulled ahead of the storm.
Important to watch today to determine how rough the thunderstorms get is the amount of sunshine we see. The more sun rays make it to terra firma, the warmer the air just above it will get, and the more unstable the atmosphere will become. When the powerhouse low drags a cold front through later today, it will slam into the warmer, moist and unstable air, and this could trigger thunderstorms.
A squall line is already making its way across the Mississippi River. A squall line is simply a long line of connected thunderstorms that sweeps through, usually with gusty winds and a quick heavy downpour. The National Weather Service is noting this morning that even if there is no thunder at all in your particular segment of the squall line, the system has so much energy you will likely see some really gusty winds.
One question that lingers is whether there will be enough instability to trigger a few "supercell" thunderstorms ahead of the line. Supercells form individually, looking like round blobs on radar, and can become intense with hail and high winds. Most tornadoes that occur form in supercells; very few develop in squall lines. At this time, the best threat of supercell thunderstorms appears to be over central and eastern Virginia where there will be more sunshine
Our turbulence will not end with the front's passage. Strong winds may develop, especially on ridgelines, behind the front tonight. All in all, this could be a much more windy evening here in the hills and hollers of Southwest Virginia than anything we got out of Hurricane Isabel.
The National Weather Service has issued a high wind watch for the possibility of winds that could gust above 60 mph at times tonight, especially on ridgetops. With a ground that could be soft after today's rain, tree damage is a distinct possibility. Expect some scattered power outages across the area, both from the storms and from the high winds tonight.
I would not be surprised to some kind of severe weather watch -- severe thunderstorm or tornado -- raised for our area later in the day.
The rest of the week looks decidedly cooler, more like late fall or early winter by the weekend, with highs in the 50s and lows in the 30s. Expect the overall pattern to be more active over the next few weeks as winter continues to mount its offense against the remnant vanguards of summer.
October 10, 2003
WHAT FALLS OUT OF THE SKY
Recently, it was reported that frog eggs had rained on Connecticut after Hurricane Isabel made its rambunctious landfall on the East Coast.
Such reports are usually dismissed incredulously. But in this case, Central Connecticut State biologists confirmed the specimens and theorized that they came from North Carolina because Connecticut frogs are not laying eggs this time of year.
Think about it a minute: A massive storm travels all the way across the ocean from Africa to the North American coast, then sweeps across miles of varied terrain as it weakens. Considering that it once packed 160 mph winds, and that undoubtedly it dropped a few tornadoes, it doesn't seem all that ridiculous that it could have picked up a few frog eggs somewhere along the way.
Live things falling out of the sky is nothing new.
Frogs and fish are the most frequent creatures to rain out of the sky. A number of observers have reported fish, sometimes large ones, falling during Southeast Asian downpours. Frog falls have been reported on every continent. I guess it really doesn't take much to make a frog go airborne.
In 1877, snakes accumulated in Memphis, Tenn. We're not talking about little bitty snakes -- they were a foot or more length. Nor are we talking about just a few, but thousands and thousands of them … and they were alive. A Gulf Coast hurricane was blamed as the culprit.
Some sky falls are spooky. How do you explain bloody meat falling in California in 1851 at an army base and again in 1867? Or in Brazil in 1968?
Some seem a tad humorous.
In 1974, frozen ducks pounded Stuttgart, Arkansas. The explanation was that an early season cold front had caught up to the prolific migration of ducks in the area, their wings froze up, and they crashed.
The modern aviation era can offer at least a plausible explanation to many sky falls. Pennies falling on English schoolchildren in 1956, bank notes drifting down in West Germany in 1976 ... seems most logical they fell out of an airplane.
But so many remain inexplicable. Why would fiber similar to blue silk accumulate in Germany in 1665? Why would candy shower on a California town not once, but twice in nine days, in 1857?
The list goes on and on. Some accounts are legend or distortions, no doubt, but the sheer volume of reports of odd things, living and nonliving, raining out of the sky lends a measure of credence to the fact that from time to time, weird things happen.
But don't expect me to call for 4 to 8 inches accumulation of living snakes anytime soon.
Have you ever experienced or know of something unusual raining out of the sky? Please e-mail me and let me know.
(Some of these accounts were taken from "Mysteries of the Unexplained," copyright 1982, Reader's Digest Association, Inc.)
October 3, 2003
A BIT OF CHILL
Winter has scored an early victory in the battle of the seasons with an early freeze across the area this morning. Roanoke's morning low was 30 degrees, and temperatures in the teens were reported as close as Lewisburg, West Va.
It will be a short-lived victory, as mild to even warmish weather returns next week. What we may be seeing in the long run is the end to the "default" weather pattern that has been with us for roughly a year, the one that has kept re-establishing itself everytime it blurs for a few days. This is the weather pattern that has baked both the western United States and Europe and given us what in some parts of Virginia is the wettest 12-month period in recorded weather history.
It appears that a strong jet stream out of the Pacific will punch the big high pressure system over the western U.S. right in the gut. This is the high that has parked over the West most of the last year, keeping that area warm and dry, while spinning the storm track over the top of it through Canada and down into our neck of the woods, keeping us cool and moist. The jet will break through the high and this will bring storminess to the western states.
What is expected to set up in the aftermath is a "split flow" pattern with two principle jet streams, one to the north and one to the south. What this does is separate the cold air from the north and the warm air from the south, and usually we get a stretch of relatively mild and dry weather. A few cold fronts move through on the rapid jet, but these are usually of Pacific origin rather than of chilly Arctic origin, and they can't generate much moisture to work with out of the Gulf as they move by west to east.
It is when the two jets start bending together and touching that problems erupt. This is called "phasing," and it means that pockets of energy ride two rivers of air. Air masses of sometimes vastly different temperature can mingle, sometimes explosively. Phasing creates all kinds of mayhem, from prolific tornado outbreaks to monster snowstorms to massive floods.
The opposite, a "zonal" flow, where the jet streams are content to blow west to east and not waver, creates really boring weather. But boring weather is often great weather for outdoor activities, and the cold followed by the warm will do well for the leaves.
This is not unusual in October, which tends to be our driest month on average. Two years ago it scarcely sprinkled in all of October. Don't expect that, but before it's over, this month may take us off our record annual rainfall pace.
Tropical Storm Larry has formed in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico, but it doesn't look like there's really much to push him anywhere. He'll probably drift aimlessly a few days and run into the Mexican coastline. Still, keep an eye on the tropics. Development there is the best chance to spoil our dry October.
September 30, 2003
FALL, AT LAST
If you had to wrap up in an extra blanket, scrape frost off your windshield this morning or close your bedroom window last night, maybe even turn on your heater, then you know fall has truly arrived.
The rumbles of thunder and gusts of wind you heard Saturday night were the noises of winter crashing into summer. It was really the first round of a battle that will go on this month and that winter will inevitably win, only to be defeated again by summer about next May. But most folks enjoy the in-between stuff, fall and spring, most.
Our cool weather is coming our way courtesy of the same upper air pattern that has predominated since about a year ago. A huge high pressure system across western North America is circulating cold air from the upper reaches of Canada southward through a big jet stream dip, or low pressure trough, in the eastern U.S. In time this week, a surface high pressure system out of Canada will settle on top of us to bring us our coldest night so far, probably Thursday.
Then, it looks like the jet stream flattens out next week and things get mild again. It's not going to be frost on the pumpkin every morning from here to April, and we may even get into some downright warm stuff next week. The tropics could still flare up a storm of some kind, in the Gulf or Atlantic, that could affect us. Ask the folks in Nova Scotia about Hurricane Juan.
One thing that will happen this week with so many ideal cool nights and warm,sunny days is that color will break out on the leaves. The tops of the ridges are already showing some color. It's always neat in October to watch the color move down the mountains from top to bottom. See our Colorwatch for more.
September 26, 2003
A LITTLE TASTE OF WINTER?
Last week it was the tropics. Next week it will be the tundra.
The weather pattern that has been so familiar since about this time a year ago -- huge high pressure ridge in the West, big low pressure trough in the East -- is setting up for next week, and it's getting late enough in the year now that such a setup means one thing: COLD!
OK, we're not talking pipe-freezing cold and maybe not even windshield-scraping cold here in the Roanoke Valley, but some of sheltered valleys may see the first sub-freezing temperatures of the season by midweek. A much wider area will see the first frost of the season, possibly a killing one in a few locations. A 40-degree morning may seem kinda mild in three months, but the shock of it is going to be positively chilling at the end of five months of warm weather.
This is not going to set in for the winter yet. It will turn milder within a few days of this temporary Canadian shot, and the sun angle is still high enough that we'll see some 70ish weather in the afternoons.
Long-term, in the winter forecast, there is a cacophany of meterological voices shouting, alternately, severely cold winter and unseasonably mild winter. Some weather prognosticators see a continuation of the general pattern established last fall where the jet stream rides around a Western high pressure and dives southeast across our neck of the woods time and time again.
Others say they see important changes in the sea surface temperatures in the northern Pacific and nothern Atlantic that portend a different pattern, one that backs the high farther west, dives the jet stream through middle of the country, then rides it northeast across our part of the world. This would bring a much milder winter pattern to us, but make the winter snowy and frigid in the Plains.
It's much too early to really get a good feel for that. One thing that'll be interesting to watch is the snow cover that builds in Canada. Last year, the snow cover was its thickest since 1976 and that led to a pretty tough winter -- here, more a persistent winter than a particularly severe one. Autumn snow cover buildup in Canada is better able to hold in the Arctic air masses that dive down later, and is usually a pretty good indicator of the kind of winter that can be expected.
We are likely to see a tropical storm named Juan form in the Atlantic over the next couple of days. Hurricane Juan, if you will remember, hit the Gulf coast in November 1985 and then spawned massive flooding in the Roanoke Valley. They only retire the names of particuarly infamous hurricanes -- my guess is that Isabel's name will be retired -- so Juan is recycled and will christen the next tropical storm in the Atlantic. This Juan will head toward Canada and play no part in our weather except perhaps to enhance the very pattern that will give us some cold mornings.
Remembering Juan was a November storm and that there was actually even a later hurricane named Kate that year, also in the Gulf, it's much too early to write off the tropics yet. I would expect at least two more named storms to threaten the U.S. coast before Thanksgiving.
Copyright 2003